Summarize
Summary moves much
further than paraphrase from point-by-point translation. When you summarize a
passage, you need first to absorb the meaning and then to capture in your own
words the most important elements from the original passage. A summary is
necessarily shorter than a paraphrase.
Summaries are
significantly shorter than the original material, and they take a broad
overview of the source material as a whole. Summary must be cited with in-text
citations and on your reference page.
Summarize
when:
· You
want to establish background or offer an overview of a topic
· You
want to describe knowledge (from several sources) about a topic
· You
want to determine the main ideas of a single source
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is
stating an idea or passage in your own words. You must significantly change the
wording, phrasing, and sentence structure (not just a few words here and there)
of the source. These also must be noted with in-text citations and the
reference page.
Paraphrase
when:
· You
want to clarify a short passage from a text
· You
want to avoid overusing quotations
· You
want to explain a point when exact wording isn’t important
· You
want to explain the main points of a passage
· You
want to report numerical data or statistics (preferred in APA papers)
Quoting
Quotations are
the exact words of an author, copied directly from a source, word for word.
Quotations must appear with quotation marks, and they need to be cited with
in-text citations and on the reference page.
Use
quotations when:
· You
want to add the power of an author’s words to support your argument
· You
want to disagree with an author’s argument
· You
want to highlight particularly eloquent or powerful phrases or passages
· You
are comparing and contrasting specific points of view
· You
want to note the important research that precedes your own
Whenever
you paraphrase, remember these two points:
·
You must provide a reference.
·
The paraphrase must be in your own
words. You must do more than merely substitute
phrases here and there. You must also create your own sentence structures.
Finding
new words for ideas that are already well expressed can be hard, but changing
words should not be your chief aim anyway. Focus, rather, on filtering the
ideas through your own understanding. The following strategy will make the job
of paraphrasing a lot easier:
1.
When you are at the note-taking
stage, and you come across a passage that may be useful for your essay, do not copy the passage verbatim unless
you think you will want to quote it.
2.
If you think you will want to
paraphrase the passage, make a note only of the author’s basic point (or points). You don’t even need to use full
sentences.
3.
In your note, you should already be
translating the language of the original into your own words. What matters is that you capture the original idea.
4.
Make sure to jot down the source as
well as the page number so that you can make a proper
reference later on.
When
it comes time to write the paper, rely on your notes rather than on the
author’s work. You will find it much easier to avoid borrowing from the
original passage because you will not have seen it recently. Follow this simple
sequence:
1.
Convert the ideas from your notes
into full sentences.
2.
Provide a reference.
3.
Go back to the original to ensure
that (a) your paraphrase is accurate and (b) you have
truly said things in your own words.
Let’s
look at examples of illegitimate and legitimate paraphrase, using a passage
from Oliver Sacks’ essay “An Anthropologist on Mars”:
The
cause of autism has also been a matter of dispute. Its incidence is about one
in a thousand, and it occurs throughout the world, its features remarkably
consistent even in extremely different cultures. It is often not recognized in
the first year of life, but tends to become obvious in the second or third
year. Though Asperger regarded it as a biological defect of affective
contact—innate, inborn, analogous to a physical or intellectual defect—Kanner
tended to view it as a psychogenic disorder, a reflection of bad parenting, and
most especially of a chillingly remote, often professional, "refrigerator
mother." At this time, autism was often regarded as "defensive"
in nature, or confused with childhood schizophrenia. A whole generation of
parents—mothers, particularly—were made to feel guilty for the autism of their
children.
What
follows is an example of illegitimate paraphrase:
The cause of the condition autism
has been disputed. It occurs in approximately one in a thousand children, and
it exists in all parts of the world, its characteristics strikingly similar in
vastly differing cultures. The condition is often not noticeable in the child’s
first year, yet it becomes more apparent as the child reaches the age of two or
three. Although Asperger saw the condition as a biological defect of the
emotions that was inborn and therefore similar to a physical defect, Kanner saw
it as psychological in origin, as reflecting poor parenting and particularly a
frigidly distant mother. During this period, autism was often seen as a defence
mechanism, or it was misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia. An entire
generation of mothers and fathers (but especially mothers) were made to feel
responsible for their offspring’s autism (Sacks 247-48).
Most
of these sentences do little more than substitute one phrase for another. An
additional problem with this passage is that the only citation occurs at the
very end of the paragraph. The reader might be misled into thinking that the
earlier sentences were not also based on Sacks.
The
following represents a legitimate paraphrase of the original
passage:
In "An Anthropologist on Mars," Sacks lists some
of the known facts about autism. We know, for example, that the condition
occurs in roughly one out of every thousand children. We also know that the characteristics
of autism do not vary from one culture to the next. And we know that the
condition is difficult to diagnose until the child has entered the second or
third year of life. As Sacks points out, often a child who goes on to develop
autism will show no sign of the condition at the age of one (247).
Sacks observes, however, that researchers have had a hard
time agreeing on the causes of autism. He sketches the diametrically opposed
positions of Asperger and Kanner. On the one hand, Asperger saw the condition
as representing a constitutional defect in the child's ability to make
meaningful emotional contact with the external world. On the other hand, Kanner
regarded autism as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices. For many
years confusion about this condition reigned. One unfortunate consequence of
this confusion, Sacks suggests, was the burden of guilt imposed on so many
parents for their child's condition (247-48).
This
paraphrase illustrates a few basic principles that can help you to paraphrase
more effectively:
·
Refer
explicitly to the author in your paraphrase. The
passage above makes explicit right
away that the ideas come from Sacks. Its indebtedness is signaled in a few strategic places. The
single parenthetical note at the end of each paragraph
is therefore all that is needed by way of citation. Referring to Sacks also strengthens the passage by clarifying
the source of its ideas.
·
Don’t just
paraphrase. Analyze. In the paraphrase of Sacks,
the decision to split the original
passage into two paragraphs adds an analytical dimension: the new passage doesn’t just reiterate his
points but lays out the two-part structure of his
argument.
·
Not all of
the details from the original passage need to be included in the paraphrase.
·
You don't
need to change every word. For
the sake of clarity, keep essential terms
the same (e.g., autism, culture, children).
However, avoid borrowing entire phrases
(e.g., reflection of bad parenting) unless they are part of the discourse of your field (e.g., psychogenic
disorder).
You decide to
include a paraphrase or summary of the entire passage in your essay. Remember
that a paraphrase records all the important details of a passage, and a summary
condenses a passage to the main ideas.
1.
In your own words, write the best paraphrase you can of Turner’s passage. Write a citation for your paraphrase.
2.
In your own words, write the best summary you can of Turner’s passage. Write a citation for your summary.
3. Rewrite your summary or paraphrase to
include a quotation from Turner’s passage. What is the best way to cite both
the summary or paraphrase and the quotation?
4.
Purposely write a poor paraphrase and summary of the above passage with poor quotations and citations, and make a
short list of the characteristics that make
them poor.
Summary vs. Paraphrase
Summary
|
Paraphrase
|
A brief restatement,
in your own words, of the content of a passage, focusing on the central
idea(s). (The central idea of a passage is often found in the topic
sentence of a paragraph or in the thesis statement of an essay.)
|
A precise restatement,
in your own words, of the written or spoken words of someone else. A
paraphrase can also be thought of as a "clarification" of a "translation"
of a complex or difficult passage.
|
A summary is in your own words,
but some key words may not be able to be changed. However, a summary
can contain brief quotations of significant language.
|
A paraphrase is in your own words,
but you must change both the words and the sentence structures of the
original passage. In addition, a paraphrase can contain brief
quotations of significant language.
|
A summary does not distort the
meaning of the original passage.
|
A paraphrase does not distort the
meaning of the original passage.
|
A summary can be selective.
You can omit ideas that do not pertain to your purpose for summarizing as
long as the omission is not a distortion of the meaning.
|
A paraphrase is specific and
should not be selective. Since a paraphrase normally deals with a very
specific portion of a text, the paraphrase should include all the elements of
that portion.
|
A summary is much shorter than the
original passage.
|
A paraphrase is roughly the same
length, and even sometimes a bit longer, than the original passage.
|
A
(Poor) Example
Original Passage:
The cowbird, as well as other
species of birds, lays its eggs in another bird's nest and thus avoids hatching
and raising its own young.
Summary:
Cowbirds do not hatch or raise their
own young.
Paraphrase:
Certain birds, including the
cowbird, do not hatch and raise their own offspring but rather pass on these
responsibilities by laying their eggs in other birds' nests.
Directions:
Read the article by Roger Sipher below and do the exercises which follow.
Sample essay for summarizing and paraphrasing
So
That Nobody Has To Go To School If They Don't Want To
by
Roger Sipher
A
decline in standardized test scores is but the most recent indicator that
American education is in trouble. One reason for the crisis is that present
mandatory-attendance laws force many to attend school who have no wish to be
there. Such children have little desire to learn and are so antagonistic to
school that neither they nor more highly motivated students receive the quality
education that is the birthright of every American. The solution to this
problem is simple: Abolish compulsory-attendance laws and allow only those who
are committed to getting an education to attend. This will not end public
education. Contrary to conventional belief, legislators enacted
compulsory-attendance laws to legalize what already existed. William Landes and
Lewis Solomon, economists, found little evidence that mandatory-attendance laws
increased the number of children in school. They found, too, that school
systems have never effectively enforced such laws, usually because of the
expense involved. There is no contradiction between the assertion that
compulsory attendance has had little effect on the number of children attending
school and the argument that repeal would be a positive step toward improving
education. Most parents want a high school education for their children.
Unfortunately, compulsory attendance hampers the ability of public school
officials to enforce legitimate educational and disciplinary policies and
thereby make the education a good one. Private schools have no such problem.
They can fail or dismiss students, knowing such students can attend public
school. Without compulsory attendance, public schools would be freer to oust
students whose academic or personal behavior undermines the educational mission
of the institution. Has not the noble experiment of a formal education for
everyone failed? While we pay homage to the homily, "You can lead a horse
to water but you can't make him drink," we have pretended it is not true
in education. Ask high school teachers if recalcitrant students learn anything
of value. Ask teachers if these students do any homework. Quite the contrary,
these students know they will be passed from grade to grade until they are old
enough to quit or until, as is more likely, they receive a high school diploma.
At the point when students could legally quit, most choose to remain since they
know they are likely to be allowed to graduate whether they do acceptable work
or not. Abolition of archaic attendance laws would produce enormous dividends.
First, it would alert everyone that school is a serious place where one goes to
learn. Schools are neither day-care centers nor indoor street corners. Young
people who resist learning should stay away; indeed, an end to compulsory
schooling would require them to stay away. Second, students opposed to learning
would not be able to pollute the educational atmosphere for those who want to
learn. Teachers could stop policing recalcitrant students and start educating.
Third, grades would show what they are supposed to: how well a student is
learning. Parents could again read report cards and know if their children were
making progress. Fourth, public esteem for schools would increase. People would
stop regarding them as way stations for adolescents and start thinking of them
as institutions for educating America's youth. Fifth, elementary schools would
change because students would find out early they had better learn something or
risk flunking out later. Elementary teachers would no longer have to pass their
failures on to middle and high schools. Sixth, the cost of enforcing compulsory
education would be eliminated. Despite enforcement efforts, nearly 15 percent
of the school-age children in our largest cities are almost permanently absent
from school. Communities could use these savings to support institutions to
deal with young people not in school. If, in the long run, these institutions
prove more costly, at least we would not confuse their mission with that of
schools. Schools should be for education. At present, they are only
tangentially so. They have attempted to serve an all-encompassing social
function, trying to be all things to all people. In the process they have
failed miserably at what they were originally formed to accomplish.
1.
Write the thesis statement for this work on the
lines below. (10)
2. from the first page,
who does the author summarize? Write that summary on the lines below. (10)
3. From the first page, who does the author
paraphrase? Write that paraphrase on the lines below. (25)
4. Who is being quoted in the first quoted passage
from the story? Write that quote on the lines below. (25)
5. On
the lines below, summarize, in order, the six (6) points the author uses to
make his case against compulsory school attendance laws. (30)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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